Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) was a German philosopher known for his gloomy worldview and his philosophy of pessimism. He is considered one of the most important thinkers of the 19th century and had a profound influence on many later philosophers and thinkers, including Friedrich Nietzsche, Richard Wagner, and Sigmund Freud.
Schopenhauer's thought revolves primarily around the themes of will, suffering, and redemption. His philosophy is often understood as a counterpoint to idealistic schools of thought, such as the German Idealism of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.
Schopenhauer's Central Ideas
The Will as a Fundamental Force Schopenhauer saw the will as the fundamental force of the universe. He understood will not merely as a human decision or intention, but as a universal, metaphysical life force that underlies everything—the forces of nature, animals, humans, and even inanimate objects. This irrational force is the true origin of all life and its dynamics.
The Will to Live For Schopenhauer, the will to live is the driving principle of all living beings. This principle strives for preservation, reproduction, and expansion. However, this will is accompanied by suffering, as life exists in a state of constant striving and imperfection. The pursuit of desires leads to frustration and suffering, because every fulfilled desire creates new desires that can never be fully satisfied.
Pessimism and Life as Suffering Schopenhauer is famous for his pessimistic worldview. He saw life as suffering: Every person is driven by their own will, which leads them to constantly live in a state of lack, desire, and dissatisfaction. Humans are never truly happy because their desires are insatiable, and achieving one goal often only leads to another, perpetuating the cycle of suffering.
Aesthetic Redemption Schopenhauer was convinced that humans can temporarily escape the painful cycle of willing by surrendering to aesthetic experiences—especially art. In contemplating works of art, music, or nature, humans can achieve a state of perception without will, in which they feel liberated from their own desires and the suffering of life. Music, in particular, was of outstanding importance to Schopenhauer, as it connected them to the "will" of the universe in a unique way.
The Metaphysics of the Will Schopenhauer based his philosophy on Kantian philosophy, in which he understood the world as an appearance perceived only by our intellect. The true core of the world, however, remains hidden and can only be understood as will. Will is a blind, unknowing force that controls the world and life, and it manifests itself in all living things.
Morality and Compassion Compassion played a central role in Schopenhauer's ethics. He believed that moral action arises from compassion for others and that, in his true nature, humans feel the suffering of all living beings. Moral actions result from the ability to recognize and share the suffering of others. Schopenhauer saw compassion as the basis for compassion and higher ethical action.
Schopenhauer and His Influence on Later Thinkers
Schopenhauer had a profound influence on many important philosophers and thinkers. Friedrich Nietzsche, in particular, adopted and further developed Schopenhauer's philosophy, particularly the idea of the will to power, even though Nietzsche partially rejected Schopenhauer's concept of life's suffering. Nietzsche admired Schopenhauer for his unflinching pessimism and yet criticized his denial of life.
Schopenhauer also found recognition in psychoanalysis, as his ideas about the unconscious and the instinctual nature of human beings showed many parallels to Sigmund Freud's theories. In particular, Schopenhauer's analysis of the unconscious as a driving will was, in a sense, a precursor to later psychoanalytic theories.
For Schopenhauer, music not only had aesthetic significance but was also a spiritual experience closely connected to the deepest, metaphysical aspects of life. This led Richard Wagner, who greatly influenced Schopenhauer's music and philosophy, to incorporate Schopenhauer's ideas into his own art.
Important Works by Schopenhauer
The World as Will and Representation (1818): This is Schopenhauer's main work and contains his fundamental philosophical ideas. It is divided into two books: the first deals with the world as appearance (Welt als Vorstellung), the second with the world as will (Welt als Wille).
Parerga and Paralipomena (1851): A collection of essays and thoughts that
Schopenhauer's philosophy is embedded in broader social and cultural themes. Here he also explains many of his moral and ethical views.
Summary
Arthur Schopenhauer was a philosophical pessimist who viewed human existence as a constant pursuit of unfulfilled desires and thus as incessant suffering. The central concept in his philosophy was the will, which stood as a blind, ceaseless force behind all life. For Schopenhauer, redemption from suffering was only possible through aesthetic experience and compassion for others. Despite his pessimistic approach, Schopenhauer influenced many thinkers and remained a key figure in 19th-century philosophy.